Blog & insights

Roughly speaking, this book is about computer science. Computer science refers to “everything that has more to do with the practical and theoretical side of computers.” [1]

Computer science is divided into:

Theoretical computer science

This “is generally about the structural structure of languages, especially programming languages, as well as the complexity and predictability of algorithms.” [1]

Practical computer science

Practical computer science deals with the “formulation of algorithms and programming methods.” The engineer learns “which programming language is most suitable for his projects.” [1]

Technical computer Science

This “examines the functional structure of the computer’s hardware. The engineer has to deal intensively with these elementary components and should be familiar with how components such as processors, memory, peripheral devices, networks and interfaces work.” [1]

Applied Computer Science

“Opens up possible applications for the use of computer science methods and provides application programs. The engineer is very active in this area and computer-based information systems are used for all operational functions.” [1]
“In mathematics, vectors, matrices, differential equations and transformations are used to form more or less static components or mutual functional dependencies. These relationships can usually be represented very clearly using formulas and, if the data is known, can also be calculated precisely.

Computer science, on the other hand, is about dynamic processes, sequential program sequences, loops, and concurrent, i.e. parallel, processes. Our entire economy, like the entire nature around us, is a juxtaposition of parallel, constantly changing processes! It's about making an estimate of future conditions based on a given situation. This is particularly difficult when a large number of parameters are not yet known.

If computer science didn't exist yet, it would have to be invented as quickly as possible!" [1]

“The von Neumann calculator

The von Neumann calculator consists of 5 functional units:

• Control unit

• Calculator (contains the ALU = Arithmetic Logic Unit)

• Memory

• Input

• Output

The control unit and the arithmetic unit together form the central processing unit (CPU), which in a PC is provided by the processor chip (e.g. Pentium). All components are connected to each other via a common bus structure.

The key point of the von Neumann computer is the serial processing of the individual calculation steps, but above all the storage of the program and data in the same memory. This means that a program can be changed as desired. Program addresses are handled and calculated like data and, for example, a jump to other addresses can take place depending on certain results (conditional jump).

This interrupts the linear processing of a program and automatically running loops and iterations can be carried out.

…

Client servers, peer-to-peer networks and cloud computing

In these systems, the von Neumann concept is broken by outsourcing computer tasks that require high resources. In client-server operation, resource-intensive tasks such as data or email management are transferred from the client to the server, which is equipped with high computing power. In peer-to-peer networks, each computer makes its resources available to the other connected computers. With cloud computing, the hardware such as the data center, data storage and software are no longer operated by the user themselves, but are rented as a service. The name cloud means that the data is no longer available locally in the company, but is geographically undetermined (cloudy). This module, for example, was written as a cloud using the LOOP authoring software developed by Oncampus. With a cloud application, you start a browser, log in, customize the application and immediately start using the application.” [1]

[1] Introduction to computer science, //vfhein.oncampus.de, as of January 14, 2019 1:19 p.m

Important terms in information technology:

“Informatics: roughly speaking, this term covers everything that has to do with computers. It was coined in 1957 by the German communications engineer Steinbuch and is by no means in common use; In the USA and England, for example, we don't talk about informatics, but rather about computer sciences or information sciences.

Message: it is a sequence of signs with the aim of communication; In terms of content, it consists of the information, i.e. what the message is supposed to say or its novelty value; physically, it consists of the signal, i.e. how the message is coded, for example.

Analogue technology: analogue signals are physically displayed continuously. The time course of electrical signals can, for example, be viewed continuously in a so-called oscilloscope. Most of nature's signals (sound waves and electromagnetic waves or continuous movements) are analog in nature. The analog accuracy that can be represented is often limited, but robust and visually memorable.

The pointer clock represents analogue, and the numbers are often omitted entirely. In media technology, the record or tape recorder (cassette) was based on analog technology.

Digital technology: the counterpart to analog technology, i.e. represented in discrete values in leaps and bounds. Digital signals form the basis for communication with the computer, they are easy to store, immune to interference and their accuracy can be very high to be driven. In media technology, signals are usually digitized, i.e. converted from analog to digital. All current devices for sound and image recording, playback and storage work digitally (e.g. CD, DVD, BlueRay). But don't fall into the dogma "analog is out - digital is in, forever", because, for example, optical signal processing (holography), which may come one day, is in principle analog in nature!

Binary: generally a representation of two states, usually formally characterized by the signals 0 and 1, written as a set {0,1}. But using 0V and 5V, for example, would also be a binary representation. It is astonishing that all computer technology, despite all its complexity, is based exclusively on the use of such simple binary signals! The unit of measurement for binary states is called a bit (binary digit). The majority of bits are also called bits, not bits.

Unary: As a counterpart to binary, one could also imagine single-valued symbols, e.g. lines on a tally list. But then the 0 would be missing as the time interval between the lines, so to speak, so for most usable signals we need at least two values.

Boolean algebra: the English mathematician Boole set up a system based on set operations (average, union) in 1848, which was "rediscovered" over 100 years later (1956) by the information scientist Shannon as very suitable for calculating serial and parallel relay circuits. Boolean algebra is therefore also called switching algebra. (This is a wonderful example of the time value of mathematical principles!). Boolean algebra is based on binary symbols (1 = true, 0 = false).

Fuzzy: fuzzy means “fuzzy, blurry” and is also listed here as the counterpart to binary. Because in contrast to a two-valued set {0,1}, an interval between 0 and 1 is considered, mathematically defined as [0,1]. Fuzzy logic can be understood as a continuous, analog logic that is, for example, 60% true and 40% untrue for a variable. It corresponds to the Asian Yin-Yang principle and was first technically exploited by Japanese engineers in the 1980s. Nowadays, fuzzy logic is part of artificial intelligence, a specialized area of advanced computer science.

Dual: in German, the term dual refers to a number system that is based on two symbols, i.e. on binary signals that have a significance. A dual number system only knows the two digits 0 and 1, so it is a so-called two-number system (just as a decimal system, i.e. a ten-number system, only knows the numbers 0 to 9, i.e. a total of ten digits). In English usage one usually only speaks of binary, even if dual is meant.

Data compression: Once you realize that the data rate of a CD is exceptionally high, namely 1.4 megabits per second, it immediately becomes clear that a lower data rate would be very desirable, e.g an online broadcast. There are a number of tricks for audio and image information, namely coding, with which the data rate can be reduced significantly, for example by a factor of 10, without data loss occurring. The original signal can be regenerated again (lossless compression). If a certain loss of quality can be tolerated, lossy compression can be carried out. Such compression is, for example, the well-known MP3 process, which very cleverly incorporates the psychoacoustics of the ear (hearing curve).

Fourier transformation: Conversion of the signal representation from the time domain to the frequency domain (spectrum) and vice versa. In this way you get additional information that you can use, among other things, for data compression; This primarily concerns signals from media technology (image and sound).

Redundancy: Pseudo-information that you don't actually need, such as the endings of certain verbs (e.g. -en) that always have the same sound in our language. With data, redundancy (i.e. a few extra bits) can be intentionally added for error detection and correction. The CD, for example, uses 3-fold redundancy.” [1]

“Difference between analogue and digital

An illustration of the terms “analog” and “digital” can be found in the following image. The signals are analog at the top left, the signals are digital at the bottom right; As you can see, there are transitional forms. analog - digital

The amplitude and time scale of signals can be continuous or discrete

Pure analog signals, as shown above left, must be converted into digital signals for further processing by the computer, as shown below right. Intermediate forms of digitalization represent the processes of grading (discrete value
- below) as well as the clocking (right). The analog signal of a tape recorder would correspond to the representation at the top left, while the CD has both a discrete sampling frequency (44.1 kHz) and a discrete quantization (16 bit), which
would correspond to the illustration at the bottom right.” [1]

[1] Introduction to computer science, //vfhein.oncampus.de, as of January 14, 2019 1:19 p.m

“Today, system technology is no longer conceivable without networking. From the tablet with which you want to connect to the WLAN at home, to the notebook for Internet access, to the network-capable smartphones, they enable or even require networking in order to be able to exploit their full potential.” [2]

“The current definition is:

A network is a number of distant, intelligent machines, all connected via communication lines and sharing the same data and information. (Markus Kammermann, CompTIA Network+, 7th edition 2018)

The world of networks can be reduced to three main components:

- Network elements – what belongs in the network?
- Network models – how is the network built?
- Network management – how is the network managed?

Network elements

The basic terms of the network elements are “data”, “interface” and “protocol”.

In network technology, we refer to data as information that is transported over the network. The transmission of this information from one place to another is a core concern of networking. Data is transported across various devices and media. In order for this to be possible, the rules for this exchange must be determined, and we call these rules interfaces. By defining interfaces it becomes possible to pass on information.

Protocols are actually language conventions. Just as there are French, German and Italian as languages, there are different “network languages”, although the term protocol is very general and can be used in many different contexts.

Networks are often managed from one or more computers that offer central services for the network. These special computers are called servers and take over the control of the network. The remote sites of a server use the server's services as customers, which is why they are called "clients" in modern German." [2]

“Network models

In order to be able to classify this variety of possibilities, one speaks of network models, which are historically based on the expansion of the network. The classic models are:

- Local Area Networks (LANs)
- Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
- Wide Area Networks (WANs)

In recent years, GAN has emerged for global networks and PAN (Personal Area Network) and BAN (Body Area Network) for single-space networks. The term CAN for Campus Area Network is also occasionally encountered, which refers to “oversized” LANs on a university campus, for example.” [2]

“        Speed          Extent       Remarks
GAN 9.6 Kbps to > 2Mbps Worldwide             Frequently Satellite
connection. Very
heterogeneous technologies
in use, first
little fiberglass.

WAN 2 to 40,000 Mbps      … 1,000 km        increasingly pure
Fiber optic networks
especially in Europe. For
Continental connections
still a lot
Copper cable, e.g.
submarine cable. Newer ones
Submarine cables consist of
Glass fiber.

MAN 100 to 100,000 Mbps   … 100 km      Technically none today
own domain more, there
WAN and MAN always
move closer together.

LAN 100 to 40,000 Mbps     < 10 km            today 100 Mbps and 1
Gbps as current
Standards that are affordable
are, 10 Gbps in
Gaining weight, 40
Gbps as well

PAN/BAN 1 to 300 Mbps        < 100 m        Classic wireless zone
for Bluetooth,
mobile devices,
Wearables and Smart
Devices among each other
or as a connection to
larger devices (e.g.
Headset or
Smartphone).” [2]

“Network management

The successful support of a network depends to a considerable extent on the network management used. This is reflected in three characteristics:

- Knowledge about the network
- The operational competencies and management skills
- Knowledge of crisis measures and concepts

Anyone who is responsible for setting up and maintaining networks must know about these topics” [2]

[2] CompTIA A+ system technology and support from A to Z, Markus Kammermann, mitp-Verlags GmbH 2019

“Like many major technological developments, the Internet has its origins in the military. During the Cold War, the United States decided to develop a comprehensive network that could withstand a nuclear strike. So it had to be decentralized, and each of its sub-points had to be able to decide independently how the data was transmitted.

In 1969 the time had come: four universities had joined forces to form the first network and communicated using a common protocol. The first word transmitted was "LOGIN". The "L" and the "O" worked perfectly and the network collapsed on the "G". This moment is considered the birth of the Internet, but no one could have predicted it back then. Success only comes much later. The second big step was the introduction of the TCP and IP protocols. Only since 1974 has it been possible to transmit data securely and efficiently over a large network. The first killer application was already in 1971. The email (yes, it is spelled correctly according to Duden) was invented and began its triumphant march without spam. Today over 90% of emails are spam, but that's just by the way.

Not much happened for the next 17 years. The Internet grew, but was only used by scientists who loved working on the command line. There were no ergonomics or graphical interfaces and searches were done via Archie or Gopher, Google and Yahoo were unknown. It wasn't until 1991 that Tim Berners-Lee at Cern had the idea of transferring data graphically and the World Wide Web was invented. From then on things progressed really quickly.

The Mosaic browser then became Netscape and then Mozilla. Microsoft missed the Internet (or should we write the WWW) and tried to counter with Internet Explorer. Which succeeded, but then Google came along and Microsoft was second again. The WWW then became commercial. Companies like AOL and Yahoo became giants, file-sharing platforms like Napster came (and went) and Mercedes and the small "mom and pop shop" were now on the Internet.

Notice

If you want to know what websites looked like back then, you can see for yourself. You can jump back in time using the Wayback function at the URL archive.org. Make a comparison and look at the FH Lübeck website (www.fh-luebeck.de) today and in 1996. Simply enter the URL of the FH Lübeck at archive.org, select the year 1996 and a date and you'll go back to the beginning." [4]

[4] Fit on the Internet, ocmk.oncampus.de, as of January 16, 2017, 12:05 p.m

“The Internet consists of networks of different administrative management that are interconnected. These mainly include:

- Provider networks to which the computers of an Internet provider's customers are connected,
- Company networks (intranets) that connect a company's computers, as well as
- University and research networks.

Typical connection to the Internet

Connections to the Internet for home users
Connections to the Internet at companies
Physically, the Internet consists in the core area, i.e. in the connections between the above-mentioned networks and in the backbones of large networks, continental and intercontinental, mainly of fiber optic cables that are connected by routers to form a network. Fiber optic cables offer enormous transmission capacity and were installed several years ago in large numbers as both land and submarine cables in anticipation of very large data traffic growth. Since the physically possible transmission rate per fiber pair has increased immensely with advanced light feed technology (DWDM), the Internet currently has some excess capacity here. It is estimated that in 2005 only three percent of fiber optics laid between European or US cities were used.[18] Satellites and radio links are also integrated into the global Internet structure, but they account for a small proportion.

In the so-called last mile, i.e. the house connections, the data is often transmitted on copper cables from telephone or television connections and increasingly also via radio, using WLAN or UMTS. Fiber optics to the home (FTTH) are not yet very widespread in Germany. Private individuals access the Internet either via a narrowband connection, for example via modem or ISDN (see also Internet by Call), or via broadband access, for example with DSL, cable modem or UMTS, from an Internet provider. Companies or government institutions are often connected to the Internet via leased lines based on copper or fiber optics, using technologies such as channel bundling, ATM, SDH or - increasingly often - Ethernet in all speed variants.

In private households, computers are often connected to the Internet to access services, which themselves provide few or no such services for other participants and are not permanently accessible. Such computers are referred to as client computers. Servers, on the other hand, are computers that primarily offer Internet services. They are usually located in so-called data centers, where they are quickly connected and secured in air-conditioned rooms against power and network failures as well as burglary and fire. Peer-to-peer applications also enable the above client computers to temporarily offer services themselves that they access from other computers in the network. The strict distinction between the client-server model is broken down here.

At Internet nodes, many different backbone networks are connected to each other via powerful connections and devices (routers and switches). The exchange of accessibility information between two networks is then contractually and technically organized as peering, i.e. on the basis of reciprocity, thus enabling data exchange. For example, at DE-CIX in Frankfurt am Main, the largest exchange point of its kind, more than a hundred networks are interconnected. Such a transfer of data traffic between separate administrative areas, so-called autonomous systems, can also be switched at any other location, but it usually makes more economic sense to do this bundled at different Internet nodes. Since an autonomous system, such as an Internet provider, cannot usually reach everyone else in this way, it needs at least one provider that delivers the remaining data traffic for a fee. This process is technically similar to peering, except that the so-called upstream or transit provider provides the customer provider with all accessibility information available via the Internet, including those for which they themselves have to pay for the delivery of the data traffic leading to them. There are currently nine very large, so-called Tier 1 providers, that can reciprocate or deliver all their traffic to their customers without the need for an upstream provider.

Since the Arpanet, as a decentralized network, should be as fail-safe as possible, it was taken into account during the planning that there should be no central computer, i.e. no place where all connections come together. However, this decentralization was not respected at the political level of the Internet. The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is the highest hierarchical organization responsible for assigning IP address ranges and coordinating the domain name system

“At the beginning of a programming course, you may ask yourself the question: “Why do you need programming?” or “What does my subject have to do with programming – that’s not a computer science course.”

Steve Jobs - the founder of Apple - answered the question in an interview like this:

"I think everyone in this country should learn how to program a computer because it teaches you how to think."

Computers have become a central part of our lives - both privately and professionally. Keywords such as smart home, smart production, smart factory, smart farming, smart patient and Industry 4.0, to name just a few, impressively describe the penetration of computers in almost all areas of our lives. It has really become difficult to find an area of life in which computers do not play a role and support us in everyday life. Regardless of whether you are involved in creating the corresponding solutions yourself, knowledge of the basic functionality of digital systems is part of general knowledge - i.e. the knowledge that every person needs in order to be able to orientate themselves in the world. Learning to program is a good hobby that is a lot of fun and useful. It trains your analytical thinking skills. You learn to break down complex issues into small, solvable individual problems and to develop the corresponding solutions. Programming is always done in a programming language. With a programming language you “tell” the computer what to do. At the beginning, you may find it difficult to formulate your solutions in such a way that the computer "understands" what you mean and actually delivers the expected solution to a given problem. On the one hand, this is because the rules of the language take some getting used to and, on the other hand, because formulating the solution to a task is difficult at first. We are used to communicating with people. A computer has no prior knowledge, it knows no context, it cannot draw conclusions itself and it cannot recognize and deal with inaccuracies. The computer can only do what we teach it. Therefore, you have to tell the computer very precisely and in detail everything it needs for the solution.

There are many different programming languages... Learning a new programming language is similar to learning a foreign language. You have to learn lots of new words and new grammar. Just like learning a foreign language, you have to actively use the new language. At first you can express simple things with great difficulty using the newly learned language. Over time, you will master the new language better and better and will be able to formulate complex sentences. As you actively use the programming language, you will also develop other skills that are useful for more than just programming. Once you've learned your first programming language, you'll notice that just knowing how to formulate solutions in one programming language has influenced the way you approach problem solving in other areas.

Programming begins with a detailed examination of the problem to be solved. In order to formulate the appropriate solution, you must first have a thorough understanding of the problem. Questions like: “What do I expect from the solution?” and “What should the solution achieve?” are in the foreground. These questions sound self-evident, but despite this or precisely because of this, answering them is one of the most difficult tasks in programming. Once you have understood the problem and know what the solution has to achieve, you start to think about how the problem can be solved in principle - you analyze the problem and model the corresponding solution or the corresponding solution (algorithm). . For smaller tasks, you may be able to imagine the algorithm well in your head and keep it in your head. For more complicated algorithms, it is advisable to write this down. After you have developed the algorithm, you can start writing it down as a program, i.e. H. to program. This is where the programming language comes into play. When implementing the algorithm, you use the language elements or instructions that the programming language provides. C is an imperative programming language. In imperative programming, a program is a sequence of statements or commands that are executed one after the other in the specified order by the computer. As a programmer, your job is to reformulate the previously developed algorithm as a sequence of instructions so that the computer can execute it.” [6]

[6] Programming I, vfhprog.oncampus.de, as of September 7th, 2017 10:34

“The creation and design of websites is summarized under the term web design. The basic language for creation is the markup language HTML, although the uniform and rational formatting of multiple websites can be made easier using formatting languages such as Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). Additional languages have been developed, especially for creating dynamic pages, with the help of which complex structures can be created from web pages (see website).

Dynamic websites: In contrast to static websites, which technically represent an HTML document on the web server, websites are often created dynamically or actively at the moment of request. This makes sense if a website needs to contain very current information such as stock market prices or weather forecasts. In this case, the web server runs a program that was previously developed specifically for this task. It carries the data e.g. B. from databases and creates the HTML document. This is then transferred from the web server to the browser and displayed to the user.

Another use case arises from the need to respond to user input, such as: B. entering a search term into a search engine. The search engine software creates a list of suitable links based on the search term and creates a website that conveniently presents this list to the user.

The ability to dynamically generate web pages depending on user input and database content quickly made the Web a universal platform for many types of applications. The advantages lie in the independence of operating systems and other properties of the clients. The only basic requirements are a network connection to the server and a web browser.

Any program that can be executed on the server system can be used to generate dynamic websites. However, to simplify programming, standards such as the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) were introduced to make web applications independent of the type of web server. The majority of CGI applications were and are written in the Perl programming language. Due to the rapidly increasing need for very powerful servers to operate web applications, technologies such as PHP, J2EE and .NET developed.

Since the content of large websites is usually maintained by several people, a content management system (CMS) is often used in such projects. More and more PHP and MySQL-based solutions are coming onto the market in free software, which are easy to use even for inexperienced programmers, as long as they do not exceed a certain level of complexity.” [8]

[8] German Wikipedia article “Website”, as of February 20, 2021

“The instructions that are often generated in a certain programming language using simple text editors are called source text (or source code). In order to run on a computer, the source code must be translated into the machine language of that computer (type). In contrast to higher-level programming languages and assembly language, this is a binary code that is difficult for humans to read. When people talk about programming in machine language, what is usually meant today is assembly language.

Translation into machine language can be done either before execution by a compiler or – at runtime – by an interpreter or JIT compiler. A combination of both variants is often chosen, in which the source text of the programming language used is first translated into an intermediate code, which is then converted into machine code at runtime within a runtime environment. This principle has the advantage that the same intermediate code can be executed on different platforms. Examples of such intermediate code are Java bytecode and the Common Intermediate Language.

Programming languages usually offer at least input/output commands so that the program can receive information (more precisely: data) and output it again; Declaration of variables and fields in order to be able to (temporarily) store information; basic and standard mathematical functions; Basic functions for character string processing; Control statements for conditional execution, repetition, program division (e.g. into subfunctions) and integration of libraries.
It is usually possible to create higher-level functions from these basic functions and encapsulate them in a reusable library. Getting from there to a higher-level or problem-oriented language is no longer a big step. There was soon a large number of special languages for a wide variety of application areas. This increases the efficiency of the programmers and the portability of the programs, but the processing speed of the programs created usually decreases and the power of the language decreases: the higher and more comfortable the language, the more the programmer is tied to the paths provided for in it to tread.

Languages have varying degrees of success – some “grow” and find increasingly wider use; Languages have repeatedly been designed with the aim of being general-purpose and broadband languages, often with modest success (PL/1, Ada, Algol 68). Various services attempt to measure the prevalence of different languages; For example, the TIOBE index, PYPL and the analyzes from RedMonk are well known.” [7]

[7] German Wikipedia article “Programming language”, as of February 20, 2021

“The small insight from the introduction into security-relevant incidents shows how comprehensive the topic of IT security is:

• It must be considered both for systems and their functionality as well as for processed information itself.

• Not only individual systems must be secured, but also their networks, i.e. entire technical infrastructures.

• The security of information affects corporate, individual and social interests.

• IT security is no longer just an issue for IT companies and now also for manufacturing companies, but also for states, societies and individual citizens.

• Security measures must not be limited to the technical components, but must include, among other things, organizational and human factors.

For this reason, it is important to view IT security not just as a technical task, but as part of broader information security. For companies there is the ISO standard 27001, which, among other things, provides a catalog of measures for IT security. Kosutic 2011 analyzed these measures and found that only 46% of the measures relate to information technologies, the rest are distributed between physical security measures, organizational measures (including documentation and human resources), legal protection and measures related to relationships customers and suppliers. In this course we want to look at IT security in the larger context of information security, whereby IT security - in the sense of information technology security - only contributes a part to information security. Figure 2.1 is intended to illustrate this point of view: IT security is based on secured technical systems, protected information and caring people.
” [9]
[9] Basics of IT security, //vfhgits.oncampus.de, as of July 17, 2020 11:14 am

“Data backup refers to all procedures and facilities that serve to protect data from loss, errors or changes. This is about the confidentiality of the data (no unauthorized access permitted), its integrity (prevention of unauthorized or accidental changes to the data) and its constant availability (data must not be lost).

Although the damage caused by industrial espionage in Germany alone is estimated at 10 billion euros per year and, according to a survey in 2000, almost 50% of the companies surveyed had a total failure of their computer system due to security breaches lasting between 1 day and 10 days per year Only a third of these companies have their own security budget. Apparently there was still a lack of security awareness at this point in time (2002). The increasing e-business operations and the eavesdropping affair of the NSA (National Security Agency) and the spy software "XKeyscore" that were discovered in 2013 have increased the topicality and importance of the security precautions listed below and have increasingly led to a rethink.

In all companies that operate information management, a comprehensive data backup system must be installed that guarantees the constant availability and reconstructability of the data through regular back-up programs (e.g. outside of working hours)." [1]

[1] Introduction to computer science, //vfhein.oncampus.de, as of January 14, 2019 1:19 p.m

“Data protection serves to protect privacy; It is intended to prevent data of a personal nature from being intentionally or unintentionally made public. Because released information takes an irreversible path. Once it is made public, it cannot be taken back. A denial usually makes such indiscretions worse, even if the information is false, because it creates the impression that someone has something to hide.

Data protection is legally stipulated in the Federal Data Protection Act (drafted in 1977, fundamentally revised in 1990, supplemented in 2002) and must also be observed by anyone who processes personal data using a PC. There are data protection officers at federal, state and company levels. The measures to be taken include: the control of access authorization, users, data storage, data carriers and data transport.” [1]

[1] Introduction to computer science, //vfhein.oncampus.de, as of January 14, 2019 1:19 p.m

Introduction

Full-stack development is an essential part of software development and is of great importance in today's digital world. In this essay, we will learn about full-stack development in detail.

What is full stack development?

In simple words, full stack development refers to the development of front-end (client-side) and back-end (server-side) of a web application. A full-stack developer is someone who has a good understanding of all levels of software development and can provide insights into different levels of web development. Further he is educated in DevOps (Server technology).

Roles and procedures of a full stack developer

A full stack developer has the ability to work in the front-end, back-end and manage the entire structure of the project. He can work on the server, understands and programs the user interface and can communicate with customers and the project team.

The responsibilities of a full-stack developer include: designing and implementing databases, creating user interfaces, ensuring application responsiveness, designing and developing APIs, performance optimization, and many others. The full-stack developer has the expertise to understand various technologies and languages such as HTML, CSS, JavaScript, PHP, Ruby and much more.

Benefits of full stack development

With full-stack development, a company can save costs and time. Instead of having separate developers for frontend and backend, a full-stack developer can do both. In addition, this type of development brings flexibility in work as the developer is able to work in different areas depending on the needs.

Conclusion

Considering the ever-evolving technology, the importance of full-stack development is enormous. Not only are full-stack developers efficient at implementing their expertise, they also understand and solve complex problems to deliver a fully functional product. It is an exciting field with many possibilities, and it plays a crucial role in today's digital world.

A freelance engineer is a person who works as an engineer and does not work as an employee in a company, but offers his services independently. A freelance engineer can work in various areas, such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering or computer science. As a freelancer, the engineer is legally independent and usually not bound to fixed working hours or locations. He can plan, implement and bill his projects independently. This allows him a high degree of flexibility and independence, but also carries the risk of an uncertain order situation.

Freelancers are self-employed professionals who offer their services on a project basis. They can work in different fields, such as graphic design, web development, translation, writing or marketing.

Freelancers usually acquire their customers independently through networks, personal contacts or online platforms. They negotiate the terms and scope of the project with their clients and set the cost.

The work of a freelancer is to fulfill the agreed tasks and complete the project on time and with high quality. They can work from their own office or flexibly from different locations. They often have multiple projects at once and need to organize their time well to meet all requirements.

Freelancers are usually responsible for their own bookkeeping, tax payments, and insurance. Depending on the country, different regulations may apply here.

There are various platforms on which freelancers can offer their services, such as Upwork, Freelancer or Fiverr. These platforms provide a way to find potential customers and make payment processing easier. However, it is also possible to work directly with clients outside of such platforms.

As a freelancer you often work on several projects at the same time, which means that you spend a lot of time on the road and little time at home. This can have both advantages and disadvantages.

On the plus side, working as a freelancer allows for a high level of flexibility. You can determine your own orders and working hours and are not tied to a fixed workplace. This also gives you the opportunity to work on different projects at the same time, which increases the variety of work and allows you to learn new skills.

However, this flexibility can also lead to a lack of stability. As a freelancer, you depend on finding projects and winning clients in order to continuously generate income. This often requires a high level of motivation and initiative. In addition, working on different projects at the same time can lead to a high workload and time pressure.

Another aspect worth mentioning concerns communication. Since freelancers are often not at a fixed workplace, communication with customers and other team members usually takes place online, via e-mail, telephone or video conferences. This requires good organization and clear agreements to successfully complete projects.

Last but not least, it should be mentioned that freelancers often have to travel, be it to clients or to conferences and events. This can lead to a life on the move and means spending little time at home.

Overall, working as a freelancer gives you the opportunity to work on different projects and develop your skills. However, this often goes hand in hand with less job stability and a lack of time at home. It is important to consider these aspects when deciding on a freelance career and strive for a balanced lifestyle.

First of all, flexibility is one of the most prominent features of the IT freelancer's workplace. Unlike traditional office jobs, IT freelancers can work from almost anywhere, be it from home, a coffee shop or a co-working space. This mobility allows them to design their work environment according to their own preferences and needs, which can lead to greater satisfaction and productivity.

Technology plays a central role in the life of an IT freelancer. The modern freelancer relies on a range of tools to work effectively. These include powerful laptops, specialized software, cloud services for data storage and collaboration tools such as Slack or Microsoft Teams. These technologies enable freelancers to efficiently manage projects, communicate with clients and other team members and securely store and share their work.

Another aspect of the IT freelancer workplace is the need for continuous learning and adaptation. In the rapidly evolving IT industry, freelancers must constantly update their skills to remain competitive. Online courses, webinars and professional literature are essential resources that enable them to stay up to date with the latest technology and trends.

Nevertheless, the modern workplace of an IT freelancer is not without challenges. One of the biggest disadvantages is the uncertainty regarding income. Since freelancers work on a project basis, there can be times of high workload but also quieter phases when orders are lacking. To counteract these fluctuations, freelancers often have to build and maintain a broad network in order to consistently acquire orders.

Another problem is the lack of social interaction that comes with working in isolation. Unlike traditional office jobs, freelancers have fewer opportunities for spontaneous encounters and conversations with colleagues. Many try to compensate for this deficit by attending networking events and meetups or using digital platforms to exchange ideas with like-minded people.

In conclusion, the modern workplace of an IT freelancer offers both exciting opportunities and challenges. Finding the balance between flexibility and uncertainty is essential for success in this form of work. However, through the clever use of technology and continuous training, IT freelancers can create a fulfilling career that offers them the freedom to pursue their professional and personal goals.

Areas of application

The possible applications of AI are almost unlimited. In medicine, AI is revolutionizing the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Imaging procedures, such as the analysis of X-rays or MRI scans, are evaluated more precisely and quickly with the help of AI. In the automotive industry, we find AI in autonomous vehicles that can navigate without human intervention. In the financial world, AI also enables the analysis of large amounts of data in order to optimize investment decisions and detect fraud.

Advantages

The advantages of AI are manifold. One of the biggest advantages is the increase in efficiency in various industries. By automating routine tasks, companies can significantly increase their productivity. In addition, AI has the potential to make everyday life easier. Voice assistants such as Siri or Alexa make it possible to complete tasks using voice commands, be it turning on the lights or checking the weather. Personalized advertising also benefits from AI by tailoring content specifically to the user and thus increasing relevance.

Challenges

Despite all its advantages, AI technology faces numerous challenges. One of them is the need for enormous amounts of data to deliver accurate results. Data protection and data security are therefore of paramount importance. In addition, there are concerns about job losses due to automation. Many people fear that AI could make their jobs redundant.

Ethical implications

The ethical issues surrounding AI are complex. The question of responsibility and liability for wrong decisions made by AI systems is currently hotly debated. There are also concerns that AI systems could replicate unconscious biases if they are trained on biased data sets. It is therefore crucial to develop ethical guidelines for the use of AI and to ensure that these technologies are used fairly and transparently.

Conclusion

Artificial intelligence offers enormous opportunities, but also brings challenges and risks. Its potential can only be fully exploited if it is used responsibly. Close cooperation between scientists, politicians and society is essential to create the framework for the fair and sustainable use of AI. In a world increasingly shaped by technology, the way we respond to and integrate AI will be critical to our future.

This essay shows that artificial intelligence is far more than just a technological trend. It forms the backbone of future development in many fields and has the potential to improve our lives in many ways.

1. Copyright in IT Law

Copyright protects creative works, including software, websites, and databases. As a freelance web and software developer, you hold the copyright to the works you create. This means you have the right to decide how your software is used, copied, or distributed. To protect your rights:

• Documentation: Keep detailed records of all development processes and versions of your software.
• Terms of Use: Clearly define in contracts how and under what conditions your works may be used.
• License Granting: Consider under what terms you might grant licenses to third parties.

2. Data Protection

Data protection is another central aspect of IT law, especially in relation to the EU's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). As a developer, you must ensure that all personal data you process is handled lawfully and securely. Key steps for compliance with data protection include:

• Privacy Policy: Create a clear and comprehensible privacy policy that explains what data is collected and how it will be used.
• Consent: Obtain explicit consent from users before processing their personal data.
• Security Measures: Implement technical and organizational measures to ensure the security of the data.

3. Contract Law

Contracts play a crucial role in IT law. Whether it involves development contracts, license agreements, or terms of use, they define the rights and obligations of all parties involved. To avoid legal issues, you should:

• Written Contracts: Ensure that all agreements are documented in writing to avoid misunderstandings.
• Clauses: Include clauses regarding liability, warranty, and termination in your contracts.
• Withdrawal Rights: Clarify under what conditions a withdrawal from the contract is possible.

4. Liability

Liability in IT law encompasses the responsibility of developers and companies for damages caused by software or services. It is important to be aware of liability risks and take appropriate measures:

• Liability Exclusions: Use liability exclusion clauses in your contracts to limit your liability.
• Insurance: Consider obtaining professional liability insurance to protect against potential claims.
• Quality Control: Implement quality control measures to minimize errors and defects in your products.

Conclusion

IT law is a complex and dynamic legal field that is of great importance in a digital society. As a freelance web and software developer, it is essential to be aware of the legal framework to protect your rights and minimize legal risks. By complying with copyright regulations, data protection requirements, contractual obligations, and liability provisions, you can establish a legally secure foundation for your activities.

If you have specific legal questions or issues, do not hesitate to seek legal advice to find tailored solutions for your situation.

Impact on Industry and Economy

The integration of AI and robotics has had a significant impact on various industries, leading to increased efficiency and productivity. In manufacturing, intelligent robots can perform precise tasks with higher accuracy and speed than human workers, reducing production costs and minimizing errors. These advancements have revolutionized supply chains and operations, enabling mass production of high-quality goods.

In the healthcare sector, AI-powered robots assist in surgeries, diagnostics, and patient care. They can perform minimally invasive procedures with greater precision and provide support in elderly care through monitoring and assistance, improving the quality of life for patients.

Furthermore, AI and robotics are reshaping the job market. While some fear job displacement due to automation, these technologies also create new opportunities and demand for skilled workers in AI development, robotics engineering, and maintenance.

Benefits and Challenges

The benefits of AI and robotics are manifold, offering enhanced capabilities, efficiency, and innovation. These technologies can perform tasks that are dangerous or impossible for humans, such as deep-sea exploration or space missions. They also offer solutions to global challenges, including environmental monitoring and disaster response.

However, the rise of AI and robotics also presents challenges. Ethical considerations, privacy concerns, and the potential for misuse in warfare or surveillance are significant issues that need addressing. Moreover, there is a growing need for regulatory frameworks to ensure the safe and ethical implementation of these technologies.

The Future of AI and Robotics

As AI and robotics continue to evolve, the future promises even more groundbreaking developments. Advances in AI, such as natural language processing and advanced neural networks, will further enhance robotic capabilities, leading to more natural and human-like interactions. The concept of collaborative robotics, where humans and robots work side by side, will become increasingly prevalent, transforming workplaces and industries.

Moreover, the development of autonomous vehicles and smart cities will continue to benefit from AI and robotics, making urban environments more efficient and sustainable. In the long run, AI and robotics have the potential to revolutionize our daily lives, pushing the boundaries of what is possible and fostering a more connected world.

Conclusion

AI and robotics represent a dynamic duo that is transforming industries and shaping the future. Their convergence has led to significant advancements across various fields, offering both opportunities and challenges. As these technologies continue to progress, it is crucial to navigate the ethical and societal implications while maximizing their benefits. The future of AI and robotics holds immense potential, promising to redefine the way we live, work, and interact with the world around us.

Electrical Engineering: The Foundation of Modern Technology

At its core, electrical engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. It is a field that has evolved over time, encompassing various sub-disciplines such as power generation, telecommunications, and electronics.

One of the most profound impacts of electrical engineering is its role in the development of various communication technologies. The internet, mobile phones, and satellite communications all owe their existence to the advancements in electrical engineering. These technologies have transformed how individuals and businesses connect, collaborate, and operate on a global scale.

Moreover, electrical engineering plays a critical role in energy management and sustainability. Engineers in this field design more efficient systems for energy production and distribution, such as renewable energy technologies and smart grids, which are essential for reducing our carbon footprint and promoting environmental sustainability.

Automation: Transforming Industries

Automation involves the use of technology to perform tasks with minimal human intervention. In recent decades, automation has revolutionized many industries by improving efficiency, productivity, and quality.

Manufacturing is perhaps the most evident beneficiary of automation. The introduction of robotics and automated systems has streamlined the production process, allowing for greater precision and consistency while reducing labor costs and the potential for human error. This transformation has not only made products more affordable but has also stimulated economic growth by enabling mass production.

In addition to manufacturing, automation has significant applications in sectors such as logistics, healthcare, and agriculture. In logistics, automated systems optimize supply chain operations, ensuring timely delivery of goods. In healthcare, automation aids in diagnostics, surgery, and patient care, resulting in improved outcomes. Meanwhile, in agriculture, automation technologies such as drones and smart irrigation systems contribute to more efficient farming practices, boosting food production and sustainability.

The Synergy of Electrical Engineering and Automation

The convergence of electrical engineering and automation allows for the creation of sophisticated systems that enhance everyday life. Smart homes, electric vehicles, and the Internet of Things (IoT) are products of this synergy, enabling a more interconnected and efficient world.

Take the example of smart homes: with the integration of electrical engineering and automated systems, users can control lighting, temperature, and security systems remotely, optimizing energy use and improving convenience. Electric vehicles, powered by advancements in battery technology and regenerative systems, offer sustainable alternatives to traditional combustion engines, thanks to innovations within these fields.

Challenges and Future Prospects

Despite their numerous benefits, electrical engineering and automation also pose challenges, such as the displacement of jobs due to increased automation. However, these challenges offer an opportunity to create new roles and skill sets, particularly in the development, maintenance, and oversight of automated systems.

Looking ahead, the continual evolution of technology promises even more breakthroughs in these fields. Advances in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and renewable energy technologies will further expand the possibilities of what can be achieved through electrical engineering and automation. These advancements are crucial for fostering innovation and addressing global challenges such as climate change and sustainable development.

In conclusion, electrical engineering and automation are integral to the functioning and advancement of contemporary society. Their collaborative developments not only drive economic growth and technological innovation but also play a vital role in addressing the social and environmental challenges of our time. As we continue to explore and harness their potential, electrical engineering and automation will undoubtedly remain at the forefront of shaping a better future.

The Role of IT in Modern Society

IT refers to the use of computers, storage, networking devices, and other physical devices, infrastructure, and processes to create, process, store, secure, and exchange electronic data. Its influence permeates every aspect of our daily lives, from the convenience of smart homes to the efficiency of automated workplaces. IT supports the backbone of today's businesses by streamlining processes, fostering innovation, and ensuring the secure management of information.

Organizations rely heavily on IT to improve decision-making through data analytics, ensure data security, and enhance customer experiences. IT's role has become increasingly crucial with the rise of technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), Blockchain, and the Internet of Things (IoT), which offer new dimensions of possibilities for development and innovation.

Web Development: The Architect of the Digital Age

Web development forms the foundation of our online experiences. It involves the creation and maintenance of websites and applications that are accessed through the Internet. The practice is broadly categorized into front-end, back-end, and full-stack development. Front-end development deals with the user interface, emphasizing aesthetics and usability, while back-end development focuses on server-side operations and database interactions to ensure seamless functionality.

Over the years, web development has evolved from simple static pages to dynamic, interactive sites that incorporate rich multimedia and sophisticated user interfaces. The advent of frameworks like React, Angular, and Vue.js has empowered developers to create more responsive and intuitive user experiences, while technologies like Node.js enable scalable backend processing. Moreover, Content Management Systems (CMS) such as WordPress have democratized web development, allowing users with limited technical skills to create professional-looking websites easily.

The Internet: A Gateway to Infinite Possibilities

The Internet, a colossal network of networks, connects billions of devices worldwide, facilitating the free flow of information and ideas. It has transformed not just industries but entire lifestyles, breaking down geographical barriers and enabling real-time communication and collaboration. The rise of e-commerce, social media, and cloud computing has significantly altered how we interact with the digital world, spawning an era of hyper-connectivity.

The Internet acts as a catalyst for innovation and globalization, offering platforms for learning, networking, and sharing knowledge. It empowers individuals and businesses by providing access to a global audience, resources for knowledge acquisition, and opportunities for digital entrepreneurship. Meanwhile, digital marketing and social media have given brands innovative tools to reach and engage their target audiences effectively.

Challenges and the Future of IT, Web Development, and the Internet

Despite the tremendous advantages, the digital age presents its share of challenges. Cybersecurity threats pose significant risks to data integrity and privacy. Ensuring equitable access to technology remains a challenge, with the digital divide highlighting disparities in Internet accessibility across different regions.

The future of IT, web development, and the Internet is poised to be even more transformative. Developments in AI and machine learning are expected to bring smarter, more personalized user experiences. The expansion of 5G technology will further enhance connectivity and speed, paving the way for innovative applications that we can only begin to imagine today. As the Web transitions towards decentralized solutions like Web3, the interplay of blockchain technologies could redefine digital ownership and data sovereignty.

In conclusion, IT, web development, and the Internet represent a triad that continues to synchronize and redesign the fabric of our society. Their ongoing evolution promises to uphold the ethos of innovation, connection, and empowerment, driving us towards a digital future filled with potential and discovery.

At its core, IT is about creating, managing, and maintaining the technology infrastructure that businesses and individuals rely on daily. It covers everything from hardware systems to software applications, each playing a crucial role in enabling functionality and performance. In a similar vein, software development involves creating applications and systems that address specific needs, whether for business productivity, entertainment, healthcare, or education.

The evolution of IT and software development can be traced back to the invention of computers and programming languages, such as COBOL and Fortran, in the mid-20th century. Over the decades, there has been a dramatic shift towards more intuitive and powerful technologies that emphasize user experience, scalability, and integration. The internet's rise transformed IT and software development by enabling global connectivity and the creation of web-based applications. This led to the development of different programming paradigms and frameworks, such as object-oriented programming and agile methodologies, which have become staples in modern software development.

One of the most significant aspects of the evolution of IT and software development is the rise of cloud computing. Companies like Amazon Web Services, Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud have revolutionized how data is stored and accessed, enabling businesses to scale rapidly and reduce costs. This shift has also paved the way for the proliferation of Software as a Service (SaaS) solutions, which have made powerful tools accessible to smaller businesses on a subscription basis.

Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning are currently at the forefront of innovation in software development. These technologies are capable of processing vast amounts of data and making autonomous decisions, which have significant implications for industries ranging from healthcare to finance. AI-driven software can automate mundane tasks, uncover insights from complex datasets, and even engage in creative processes like designing and composing music.

In terms of impact, IT and software development have fundamentally altered how people communicate, work, and socialize. The COVID-19 pandemic further underscored the importance of digital tools, as remote work and virtual collaboration became essential. Platforms like Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Slack have not only facilitated continued business operations but also allowed personal relationships to thrive in an otherwise physically isolated world.

The growth of IT and software development also raises ethical concerns and challenges that must be addressed. Privacy and security are prime considerations, as incidents of data breaches and cyberattacks continue to rise. Furthermore, the deployment of AI raises questions about bias, accountability, and transparency. It is crucial for developers and companies to implement ethical guidelines and robust security measures to safeguard user data and ensure fair practices.

In conclusion, IT and software development are vital components of the modern world, constantly reshaping the way we interact with technology and each other. As these fields continue to evolve, they promise to bring even more groundbreaking innovations that will further integrate technology into our daily lives. By addressing the accompanying ethical challenges and staying informed about new trends, society can maximize the benefits of IT and software development while mitigating potential risks.

What Is Software Engineering? – Structured Development in the Digital Age

In an increasingly digital world, software is the backbone of nearly every industry—from industrial automation and financial services to communication and healthcare. But how are complex software systems developed to be reliable, secure, and maintainable? The answer lies in software engineering.

Definition: More Than Just Coding

Software engineering is the systematic and engineering-based approach to the development, maintenance, and lifecycle management of software. It encompasses a holistic methodology that combines techniques, tools, and structured processes to develop high-quality software solutions efficiently and sustainably.

It’s not just about writing code—it’s about managing the entire lifecycle of a software product, from requirements analysis to maintenance.

The Phases of Software Engineering

1. Requirements Analysis
   The goal is to work with the client to gather and document both functional and non-functional requirements.

2. System and Software Design
   Software architecture is designed. This includes defining the structure, data flows, and interfaces. Tools like UML are often used for modeling.

3. Implementation (Coding)
   The actual source code is developed based on the design—using modern frameworks, libraries, and version control systems.

4. Testing
   Unit testing, integration testing, and system testing are used to ensure the software works correctly and meets the requirements.

5. Deployment and Maintenance
   The finished software is delivered and integrated into the client’s environment. Post-release updates and bug fixes remain a vital part of the process.

Principles and Methods

Software engineering relies on established principles such as:

• Modularity: Dividing systems into small, independent modules.

• Reusability: Leveraging existing components.

• Correctness: Ensuring the software behaves reliably.

• Maintainability: Making code readable, understandable, and extendable.

• Agility: Iterative and incremental development using methods like Scrum or Kanban.

Challenges in Modern Software Engineering

As complexity grows, so do the demands:

• Security concerns (e.g., data protection, authentication)

• Distributed systems and cloud technologies

• Scalability and performance

• Team collaboration (e.g., via DevOps and CI/CD practices)

Conclusion

Software engineering is the foundation of modern IT systems. It combines creative problem-solving with structured thinking and technical methodology. Anyone looking to develop software that is not only functional but also scalable and maintainable in the long term must understand the principles of software engineering.

Legal Opinion: Bilke Web and Software Development

1. Company Profile

• Name: Bilke Web and Software Development

• Owner: Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Dominic Bilke

• Founded: 2022

• Legal Form: Freelance Engineer (pursuant to § 18 German Income Tax Act - EStG)

• Small Business Regulation: Applicable (§ 19 German VAT Act - UStG)

• Location: Frankfurt am Main

• Website:  www.bilke-web-sw.de

2. Services and Legal Framework

• Web and software development, CMS, SaaS, databases, accessibility, SEO

• AI integration (ChatGPT, Gemini)

• Project management with Kanban

• Hosting configuration (All-Inkl, IONOS)

• GDPR compliance (including data processing agreements)

• Legally compliant General Terms and Conditions (GTC) available

• Professional liability insurance

3. Contract and Data Protection Law

• Service contracts based on templates

• Not subject to VAT (small business regulation)

• Full compliance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)

• No infringement of trademarks or intellectual property rights

4. Legal Assessment

The legal assessment concludes that Bilke Web and Software Development is correctly organized as a freelance sole proprietorship. All legal requirements (EStG, UStG, GDPR) are met. The business is further secured through GTC, liability insurance, and data protection compliance. No legal deficiencies are present. The operations are both substantively and formally lawful and professionally secured.

5. Academic Degrees and Certifications

• Diplom-Ingenieur (FH) in Computer and Automation Engineering, HTW Dresden (final grade: good)

• Web Developer (FernUniversität in Hagen, 2023–2024)

• Data Analyst (FernUniversität in Hagen, 2024)

• Frontend Developer with IT Security (FernUniversität in Hagen, 2024–2025): Qualified in confidentiality, integrity, and availability of IT systems

• Team Kanban Practitioner (Kanban University, 2023)

• Competencies include: SQL, PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript, Python, XML, IT security standards, agile development

6. Conclusion

Bilke Web and Software Development meets all legal requirements for freelance work in the IT sector. The business is reliable, liability-limited, and compliant with data protection laws. There are no indications of legal risks or violations.